The Art of Science
The Art of Science
My first post is inspired by my uncle who recently passed; Clemens-August Brüggemann. He took over the incredible “Landgasthof Haarmühle” from my grandparents and it is now in the 4th generation. He was extremely passionate about the surrounding nature and was very involved in sharing its history and conserving it: the Witte Venn is a protected recreational area which crosses the border between the Netherlands and Ahaus, Germany. It is a unique landscape consisting of heath, moorland and grassland and is home to a large diversity of plant and animal species. In addition, there are about 50 Scottish Highland cattle that maintain this landscape.
Cattle are often negatively perceived, as they are a major source of greenhouse gas emissions5. This is as a result of their digestive process, including enteric fermentation in the rumen, which is the biggest source of global emissions by livestock1. However, few people are aware that cattle can also have significant positive impacts on environments, including increasing biodiversity8,7. Incorporating grazing can lower dominance and increase evenness of various animal communities1, especially arthropods (e.g. insects, spiders, mites etc.) and increase the number of floral families. Furthermore, by feeding on shrubby or woody saplings, they aid in preventing wood encroachment1 in grasslands. They can even regulate cascades to other consumers, including termites, rodents, ticks, fleas and pathogens8. The impact that the cattle will have is very context dependent; including landscape and management practices such as stocking densities, species8 and feed2.
The human population continues to increase exponentially and with it, so are anthropogenic effects on ecosystems. More people means increased urbanisation and more agriculture to keep up with food supply and demand, resulting in decreasing natural landscapes and the destruction of ecosystem structures1. This further weakens urban ecosystem functioning and resilience10,9. An important way to reduce biodiversity loss and local extinctions3, as well as maintain the provision of ecosystem services4 is through landscape connectivity. This is described as the degree to which a landscape facilitates or restricts the movement among resource patches. The term, therefore, includes both structural properties of the landscape, as well as its effect on the movement of organisms (behavioural process)8.
It is, however, important to note that landscape connectivity can also have negative impacts if not implemented correctly and is highly context and species-specific8. An example of where this went terribly wrong can be taken from the Kruger National Park, South Africa. In the 1900s, a total of 53 artificial water holes were created over several years, to increase the water access for animals6. This, however, had massive consequences; it led to several ecological problems such as erosion and other environmental degradation and increased the grazing competition between the abundant herbivores and rare antelope such as roan and sable. Drastic measures had to be taken to demolish certain artificial water holes7.
If you would like to read more on the topic, IUCN created a publication titled “Guidelines for conserving connectivity through ecological networks and corridors” :
Landscape connectivity can be achieved through several landscape elements including habitat patches (nodes) and links between them; either physical (e.g. habitat corridors) or functional connections, such as species or gene dispersal or water flow. How these elements are arranged as well as the strengths of the links effect how they will support the resilience of the landscape1 (in other words how it will recover after disturbance5). An example of landscape connectivity which helps buffer the negative effects of urbanisation, is urban greening (green spaces such as parks, forests) as well as “bluing” (e.g. through ponds and rivers), connected by corridors which allow organisms to disperse between locations3. Small stepping stones can even be created by simply covering walls or roofs with plants.
Human-wildlife conflict is described as direct interactions between humans and wildlife, with adverse outcomes for one or both parties. This matter includes a large variety of animals and situations. These circumstances often result from the co-occurrence of humans and wildlife in a shared landscape, in search of limited resources₁.
Costs on the local people can include a depredation of livestock or game, raiding of crops, the destruction of food storages, attacks on humans, transmissions of diseases and/or indirect opportunity costs₄. In turn, humans may respond with lethal control to an extent which can cause major wildlife decline and even extinctions₇. Declines in large predators can have further major cascading consequences for other species as well as ecosystem services₁₀.
Human-wildlife conflict can be traced back to our earliest records of history₅, but as resource availability and human and animal behaviour has and continues to change with climate change, this issue is increasing globally₂. Furthermore, climate change also increases resource scarcity and forces people and animals to share increasingly highly populated areas₁.
Finding a balance in protecting endangered species with satisfying the needs of local communities is essential for resolving this conflict. Management strategies include preventing these conflicts through the use of lethal control (e.g. legally sanctioned hunting or selective harvesting)₃₈ and nonlethal measures (such as fencing, livestock corrals and guard animals)₉.
NOTE: Check out an incredible foundation based in SA (where I worked as a volunteer), which addresses this topic: Cheetah Outreach (https://cheetah.co.za/)
Another way is to mitigate the impacts after the conflict occurred. This can be achieved through compensation; a widely used tool in which affected people are reimbursed for lost livestock or crops through monetary or non-monetary (e.g. replacement of animals or food) means₆.
An example which has caused much discussion in Germany is the presence of the wolves. During the 19th century, wolves were wiped out in Germany for hunting livestock. However, in addition to an increase in abandoned farmland in Eastern Europe, new European laws were implemented in the 1980s and 1990s. This led to a recovery of this incredible species and their numbers are still rising₁₁.
There are unfortunately also many more examples with extremely sad endings, including that of the tigers in Asia. In China, around ten thousand people were killed or injured by tigers, eventually leading Mao Zedong to declare war on these animals and leading to the eradication of almost all of China’s tigers₅. These examples show the significant impact that the government and laws/policies can have.
Why Forests Matter – And How They’re Changing
Forests are some of the most important ecosystems on our planet. Not only do they provide food, timber, and habitat, but they also play a crucial role in regulating the climate13. One of their most vital services is acting as carbon sinks—they absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide (a major greenhouse gas) from the atmosphere and store it in their biomass and soils10.
However, as the climate warms, forests are facing new and growing challenges. Rising temperatures, more frequent droughts, and increasing disturbances (such as fires and pests) are expected to reduce tree growth and limit forests’ ability to store carbon14. That’s why many scientists, including myself, are working to better understand how different tree species cope with drought and water stress by studying their hydraulic traits—characteristics that influence how trees move and store water. Knowing which species are best adapted to withstand harsher, drier conditions is becoming essential for sustainable forest management and future planting strategies.
Forest Structure: A Living, Layered System
Forests are not just collections of trees; they’re dynamic systems with complex structures. Forest structure refers to how trees and other plants are distributed and how their physical traits—such as height, crown size, and spacing—interact with one another and the environment6.
This structure influences everything from biodiversity to productivity, habitat availability, and the delivery of ecosystem services7,8. Importantly, forest structure is shaped over long periods through processes like disturbance (e.g., storms, fire, logging), regeneration, and species interactions12,4. For instance, tree establishment depends on seed dispersal, predation, and successful germination. Canopy cover affects how much sunlight reaches the forest floor—often the most limiting factor for plant growth in shaded understories. And tree mortality, which results from competition, is influenced by the age, size, species identity, and growth rate of neighbouring trees3.
Understanding these patterns and processes helps us appreciate forests not just as scenic backdrops but as active, ever-evolving ecosystems.
Not All Forests—or Trees—Are the Same
Forests come in many forms around the world—temperate, tropical, mangrove, boreal, floodplain, and swamp forests, to name just a few. They are often classified based on the types of tree communities that dominate them2, but also by the kinds of trees they contain: angiosperms (broad-leaved flowering trees), gymnosperms (conifers), or a mix of both.
These two major tree groups differ in fundamental ways. Angiosperms produce seeds inside flowers that are often enclosed in fruit. Gymnosperms—an older evolutionary lineage—produce seeds that are exposed or “naked”11. Angiosperms also tend to be deciduous, shedding their leaves in autumn, while gymnosperms are typically evergreen, keeping their needle-like leaves year-round1. These differences in form and function influence how each group responds to stress, competes for resources, and survives in changing environments5.
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